UMS "Agram" : SCATTER TERRAIN FOR A WILD WEST GAMING BOARD < Articles < Hobby

SCATTER TERRAIN FOR A WILD WEST GAMING BOARD

Marko Paunović, 11th September 2020

Having built a decent number of bigger, „feature“ gaming terrain for my Wild West gaming board for Malifaux, I've decided I now need a lot of smaller terrain that will add some fun to the games. Bigger terrain will create the atmosphere, while the smaller ones will provide many gaming options, such as hard and soft cover, rough terrain, woods and provide additional challenges and opportunities to any player to further enhance the gaming experience.

Idea and planning

The basic outline of each of these terrain is pretty straightforward and simple. After a couple of days planning, I've decided what terrain I'll need to have a complete and versatile board that will provide gamers with plenty of atmosphere and challenge during their games. In this article, I'll cover the following subjects: forests, outhouse, well, town entrance, fences, rough terrain, a wooden crate and a metal coal container.

I'll build four forests roughly 15 x 15 cm in size. To tie them in with the rest of the scenery I've already built, they'll be pine forests. I'll also build four pieces of rough terrain varying in size from really small ones 5 x 5 cm to a slightly larger one 10 x 15 cm. The idea behind these is that, although they hinder movement, they do not allow any cover. A nuisance on the battlefield, really.

I'll also be making four 1,5 x 10 cm fences and a 20 x 5 cm western town entrance. Fences will provide soft cover in my Malifaux games as well as impede movement a bit.

Next, I'll be building several smaller pieces of terrain: an outhouse (because what is a western town without at least one outhouse) and a wooden well. These smaller pieces would provide hard cover and provide hinderance in movement and in line of sight. To finish this issue's build, I'll be adding some containers. One will be a metal container for coal and the other will be simple wooden crate. Both will be slightly bigger than one would expect, but I've decided to go down that road because I want these to provide enough space for the models to be placed on top of them should the player wish to.

Materials and tools

Once I've had most of the design ready, I could finally make a list of tools and materials needed. For this project I will need the following materials:
- one 5x5 mm linden slat (it comes in 1 m length)
- roughly one plank of 2 mm balsa wood (they come in 10 x 100 cm planks)
- roughly half a plank of 5 mm balsa wood
- a small piece of 5cm thick HD styrofoam
- about 50x30 cm piece of 4mm thick MDF board
- superglue
- PVA glue
- gravel (at least three sizes)
- static grass / tufts
- sanding paper (1 sheet)
- plasticard (0,75 mm thick, one sheet 20x30cm)
- masking tape
- office pins
- slate
- roots and twigs
- pine/fir trees
- Siligum (one package)
- plaster

The tools needed are:
- scalpel blade
- marker pen
- modelling saw
- pin vice (or an electric mini drill)
- brushes – various sizes – for painting/washing and for drybrushing
- pliers and pincers
- icepick
- plastic glue, PVA glue and superglue
- black primer spray
- electric jigsaw*
- electric disc sander*

* I will be using my Proxxon disc sander and jigsaw on the MDF to make the bases. However, the bases can be cut with hand held tools such as modeller's saw and be sanded down with sanding paper. It'll only require a bit more time and strength.

Building the bases

After drawing the rough outlines of my bases on the MDF board with a marker pen, I proceeded to cut it with my jigsaw. When the rough shapes, squares, were done, I drew the exact shapes of my terrain pieces on the MDF bases and again using the jigsaw I cut them to size. Once the cutting was done, I chamfered the base edges with my disc sander. This will ensure a nice transition between the table and the base of the terrain.

After the basic shapings of my terrain were done, I now had to distribute various scenic elements on the bases. This meant getting out my stash of fir/pine trees and pieces of slate I use for my terrain. Slate is an incredible type of stone which allows you to shape it without any effort (or at least with only minimum effort). It's built from many parallel layers that can be peeled off and when the stone's thickness is reduced enough it can even be broken with hands. This is especially useful in smaller scenic pieces such as bases for the miniatures themselves. If you are careful enough, you can even drill through it so you can even pin your models to the stones and subsequently to their bases as well. Other great thing is that the mountain right next to the city I live in is made of slate so it's really handy to get by. One other thing I discovered while hiking is that the forest usually has some upturned trees. These, obviously, have their roots out and these in turn look great as dried trees on your bases and even terrain which I'll demonstrate later on in this article. But for now, we'll turn to the slate. Before you use the slate pieces on your bases/terrain, I suggest washing them down with a hose (something I suggest you do with the roots as well) and dry them in the sun. First, you'll remove the dust of the stones which will prevent the stone (or root) from fully adhering to the surface of the base, but also the paint won't peel or fall off the stones. Second, and more important, the stones and roots coming from a forest, might contain some germs and other filth, even cause mouse fever so it's really important to wash them thouroughly. After washing, leave to dry slowly on the sun. Remember to always wash your hands thouroughly after handling the unwashed slate and roots! Also, if you have handy, use protective gloves when possible. With the slate now dry, I could place them and the fir/pine trees on my bases and dry-fit them to find a suitable size and pattern. Once I was satisfied with the placement, using PVA glue, I glued the pieces of slate to the bases in appropriate places. The trees were grouped according to the bases they would eventually be placed on and marked carefully (both the trees and the bases) so there would be no confusion later on. The trees I used are NOCH trees that come in a bag of 50 and cost about 40 USD (NOCH is a German model train accessories manufacturer). I removed the trunks of the trees and glued them to the bases. This will enable easier painting of the terrain and once the painting is done, I'll simply glue the rest of the trees back in their respective trunks.

Town Entrance

Once the glue on the tree trunks and small pieces of slate was dry, I could now turn myself to building the town entrance. At first I wanted to make it from man-carved wooden beams but looking at my roots and twigs stash, I found three twigs that were perfect for the Old West look I was after. Using my pin-vice, I drilled two holes in appropriate places on the base. I used a drill bit that was roughly the size of the office pin I was about to use as a pin. However, threading the pin through the bottom of the base would mean that the pin head would stick from the bottom and make the entire terrain wobbly. To prevent that from happening, I used a larger drill bit and just made a small insertion just big enough to house the entire pin head. Using superglue I glued the two Y-shaped twigs in place and connected them with a straight twig. Then I cut several 5 mm wide balsa pieces (about 7 cm long) and made the town sign.

Fences

Same as with the town entrance, I drilled two holes per fence base to enable the pinning of the fence posts. Using 5 x 5 mm linden slat I made 8 fence posts (2 per base) which I chamfered along each edge to get a worn look. I pinned and glued the fence posts using superglue. Then I cut eight strips of 2 mm thick balsa wood (same as used on the town sign) roughly 12 cm in length and had their edges chamfered with the scalpel blade. Again, using superglue I glued them in place, two per fence. Intentionally, I didn't glue them perfectly aligned to acchieve that worn look.

Outhouse

Next up was the outhouse. Using 2 mm thick balsa wood, I cut the four walls and a roof in desired sizes (written on the sketch during the design phase). I glued the wall pieces on the appropriate base with superglue. NOTE: All the wooden bits could be glued with PVA glue, but the PVA glue sets a lot longer so I opted for this quicker method. Once the structure was in place, I decided to add individual planks to the outer walls. This would make the worn effect even more highlighted. I cut individual planks at about 3 – 4 mm wide. When the walls were done, I spreyed the black primer inside – because the door would be slightly ajar and the inside would be visible if not painted. When the primer was dry, I glued the roof in place and made a small hole on the door.

Well

I've decided not to make the well out of individual planks like the outhouse, but rather to use engraved balsa wood to mimic the wooden walls of the well. The vertical beams were once again made from linden slats to provide the whole well some structural integrity. The roof was once again made from 2 mm thick balsa wood.

Crate

Just like the well, I used engraved balsa wood to make the sides of the crate. I glued the sides using superglue. The frame of the crate was done with balsa cut to size and I even added rivets using office pins. Since my crate was big enough to fit entire office pins, I didn't cut them. If you build smaller crates, then before sticking the pins, you should cut them to size first.

Making multiple crates

Once the crate was done, I decided to make a mould out of it. To make moulds I usually use Siligum. Siligum is a two component mix that once combined sets in 10 minutes and forms a rubbery supstance great for making molds. It comes in 100 g and 300 g packages. It is similar to green stuff in how it's gnawed to make the end product. Once the mould was done, I mixed some plaster of paris and poured it in my mould. About half an hour later, I had my first cast.

Coal Container

Coal container was made from 0,75 mm thick plasticard. Plasticard at this thickness is really easy to cut, but it does lack some structural strength. It bends quite a bit. For that reason, I cut some HD styrofoam to fit inside the plasticard frame and hold it in place. To glue the plasticard I used Revell plastic cement. When the frame was dry, I used the same thickness plasticard to add the detailing to the sides. The rivets were made from blobs of PVA glue. The inside of the container was covered with PVA glue and the largest pebbles were placed inside to represent coal once painted.

Adding texture

Next step on the bases was to add texture. I covered everything with diluted PVA glue and started adding the gravel. Remember, start with the biggest granulate and end with the smallest. I used three different sizes, from small pebbles to chinchilla sand. The larger pebbles and gravel I placed strategicly around the bases to form some clutter. The two smallest granulates were freely dispersed throughout the terrain making sure I get even coverage throughout and no area is left without texture. I also used chinchilla sand to mark the road (on the town entrance piece) and the paths (on the outhouse and through the forests) just to add some diversity. When the texture was dry, I undercoated everything in black matt primer.

Painting

When the undercoat was dry, it was time to paint all the terrain. I started painting the bases first. Wanting all my terrain to fit one theme (and consequently one tabletop) it was only natural I use the same colours and colour scheme as on the earlier pieces. Therefore once again, I used Pebeo Deco color range. I used Brown (29) for the basecoat and continued drybrushing with Ocre (51). Lighter shades were done with a 50:50 mixture of Ocre (51) and White (41). The final highlight was done with Antique White (69). The road and paths were first basecoated with Brown (29) then heavily drybrushed with Ocre (51) and a 50:50 mixture of Ocre (51) and White (41). The last two highlights were Antique White (69) and pure White (41). This way, I had a visual difference between the normal groundwork and the worn out road.

The slate was painted by drybrushing a 50:50 mixture of Black (55) and Grey (54). Next layer was pure Grey (54) and the finishing highlight was pure White (41).

The buildings and structures have two different surfaces and consequently textures – roof and wooden walls. I proceeded to paint the wooden walls by drybrushing first using a 50:50 mixture of Black (55) and Grey (54). Next layer was pure Grey (54) and the finishing highlight was Ash Brown (70). I was not quite satisfied with the result, so I added another highlight of pure White (41). The roof was painted first with a mixture of Black (55) and Grey (54) and then a mixture of Grey (54) and Antique White (69) finishing with almost a pure coat of Antique White (69).

The wooden parts of the town entrance were covered using masking tape to prevent any paint from reaching it as the dried wood (from the roots) provided a good enough effect. Once the rest of the base was painted, I removed the masking tape and washed the balsa sign with a diluted mixture of black wash just to stain it a bit. When the wash was dry, I wrote Malifaux on the sign.

Metal coal containter was painted pure (old Citadel) Boltgun Metal. When the paint was dry, it was then covered generously with black wash (Nuln Oil, in this case). Once the wash was dry, I used Model Mates' Rust Effect on the metal bits and in the end I put Model Mates' Soot Black effect to mimic the coal residue on the metal parts. The coal inside was painted black with some dark grey highlights.

Vegetation

After the painting, it was time to add the vegetation to the bases. First up, I decided to re-plant my pine trees. Using superglue to fix the trees in place, I simply guided the wire on the bottom of the trees into the small hole of the plastic tree trunk. Before gluing, I made sure that the trees fit their trunks by doing a quick mock-up of the assembly.

With the trees in place, I could now add the static grass. I made a mixture using several green, brown, yellow and black shades of static grass and when I was satisfied with the end product, I glued it in random patches throughout the bases. One thing I made sure of is that I put static grass over any and all of the remaining holes where the wooden structures met their bases in order to hide the unintentional mistakes. Once the static grass was in place, I applied several shades of different tufts. Again, as in the former articles, I used tufts made by a Portuguese company called Gamer's Grass that is also available in USA.

For the forest and the rough terrain, I added some longer static grass bits as well as some pieces of wood (twigs, roots and whatnot from my forest hike). This will provide sufficient semblance of the rough terrain or forest floor without unnecessary hindrance of movement during gaming. This marked the end of the building process and I could now make my final shots of the finished terrain.

Latest articles

Building a display base for Agramers v.2

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In this article, I will briefly describe the process of creating a scene base for Agramer v.2, from idea to creation, painting, adding vegetation, and finally casting the slices.

The first step in the creation is the idea. For this project, it wasn't too difficult for me, because I participated in (creating) how the figures themselves should look. Therefore, I already had them arranged in some groups in my head. Orc, troll and goblin in one; vampire, Frankenstein's monster and werewolf in another; desert Zorro and sheriff; Highland/Scottish Braveheart, dwarf and bard; and forest Robin Hood, Elf Mage and Elf Enchantress. In the end, there remains the gnome and Jack Sparrow who goes to the island. Inside the purchased frame, I placed the figures, and drew the outlines of the terrain.

After that, I added volume to the base using 2 cm and 5 cm thick HD Styrofoam, slowly shaping the final look of the terrain. I also tried out the look with the figures in each iteration.

Once I was happy with the look, I tackled the problem of locking the figures. Since this base is primarily intended for transportation and display at various performances, I wanted the figures to be attached to the base quite firmly, but still be able to be removed from it. From experience, it is best to use magnets for this. They are difficult to attach, or rather glue, to Styrofoam. Therefore, I had to make slots for the figures from balsa, in which I drilled holes for the magnets. When placing them, make sure that all the magnets on the base are facing the same way - so that you can move the figures to other places if necessary. Also, turn the magnets to the opposite side when placing them in the figure bases. The easiest way to do this is to mark the side of the magnet on which you will put the glue.

Then, using DAS clay, I created transitions and smoothed out individual parts to make them look natural.

The next step was to build the building. I decided on a Burton-esque haunted house design with a turret. I built it out of balsa, cutting each slat individually. I made the roof out of sandpaper sheets.

Then I added texture. I used pebbles and sand in several granulations which I glued together using PVA glue. In parallel with this process, I drilled holes for the trees and tested how it worked.

Painting was the next step. As always, I used PEBEO DECO acrylic paints. Black, gray, white, brown, and ochre are the shades I most often use to get a uniform look for my courts.

After painting, it was time for the vegetation. I placed two or three types of 5-7 mm tufts and static grass. In addition, I placed trees that I glued using PVA glue.

The last step was pouring the resin for the sea. I use two-component Gedeo Crystal Resin, which I tint with Pebeo Vitrail. First, you need to mix the two resin components well in a volume ratio of 1:2. When it is well mixed, I add Vitrail color drop by drop to the resin until I am satisfied with the tone of the resin. I pour the resin from the container so that it drips over the stick, this way I get rid of air bubbles that are created by mixing.

This completed the creation of the stage base. Below is a short gallery of close-ups of the base with figures.

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U ovom članku ću opisati ukratko proces izrade scenske baze za Agramere v.2 od ideje do izrade, bojanja, stavljanja vegetacije i na kraju ulijevanja rezina.

Prvi korak u izradi je ideja. Za ovaj projekt, to mi i nije bilo pretjerano teško, jer sam sudjelovao (osmišljao) kako same figure trebaju izgledati. Samim time, već sam ih u glavi imao posložene u neke grupe. Ork, trol i goblin u jednoj; vampir, Frankensteinovo čudovište i vukodlak u drugoj; pustinjski Zorro i šerifica; highlandski/škotski Braveheart, patuljak i bardica; te šumski Robin Hood, Elf Mage i Elf Enchantress. Na kraju ostaje gnom i Jack Sparrow koji ide na otok. Unutar kupljenog okvira postavio sam figure, i iscrtao obrise terena

Nakon toga, dodavao sam volumen bazi pomoću stirodura debljine 2 cm i 5 cm, polako oblikujući konačan izgled terena. Također u svakoj iteraciji sam i isprobavao izgled sa figurama.

Kada sam bio zadovoljan s izgledom, bacio sam se na problem uglavljivanja figura. S obzirom da je ova baza primarno namijenjena za transport i izlaganje na raznim nastupima, htio sam da figure budu pričvršćene za bazu podosta jako, ali da se i dalje daju maknuti s nje. Za to, iz iskustva, najbolje je koristiti magnete. Njih je teško pričvrstiti, odnosno zalijepiti, za stirodur. Stoga sam morao izraditi utore za figure od balze u koje sam ubušio rupe za magnete. Prilikom postavljanja, pazite da svi magneti na bazi budu okrenuti na istu stranu – tako da možete prema potrebi i pomicati figure na druga mjesta. Također, magnete okrenite na suprotnu stranu kad ih postavljate u baze figura. To je najjednostavnije odraditi tako da označite stranu magneta na koju stavljate ljepilo.

Zatim sam koristeći DAS glinamol izradio prelaze i zagladio pojedine dijelove da izgledaju prirodno.

Sljedeći korak bila je izrada zgrade. Odlučio sam se za burtonovski dizajn uklete kuće s tornjićem. Izgradio sam ju od balze, svaku letvicu izrezujući zasebno. Krov sam napravio od ploča brusnog papira.

Zatim sam dodao teksturu. Koristio sam kamenčiće i pijesak u nekoliko granulacija koje sam zalijepio koristeći PVA ljepilo. Paralelno s tim procesom, izbušio sam rupe za drveće i isprobao kako funkcionira.

Bojanje je bio sljedeći korak. Kao i uvijek koristio sam PEBEO DECO akrilne boje. Crna, siva, bijela, šmeđa i oker su nijanse koje najčešće koristim da dobijem uniforman izgled svojih terena.

Nakon bojanja došao je red na vegetaciju. Postavio sam dvije, tri vrste 5-7 mm tuftova i statičku travu. Pored toga, postavio sam i drveće koje sam zalijepio koristeći PVA ljepilo.

Zadnji korak bio je ulijevanje rezina za more. Koristim dvokomponentni Gedeo Crystal Resin kojeg obojim Pebeo Vitrail bojom. Prvo je potrebno dobro umiješati dvije komponente rezina u volumnom omjeru 1:2. Kada je dobro umiješan, u rezin dodajem kap po kap Vitrail boje dok nisam zadovoljan tonom rezina. Rezin ulijevam iz posude da curi preko štapića, na taj način rješavam se balončića zraka koji nastaju miješanjem.

Time je završila izrada scenske baze. U nastavku slijedi kratka galerija krupnih planova baze sa figurama.

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Marko Paunović, 15th July 2026

Pigmentation principles: Binders and solvents - what holds the paint in place and what allows it to flow

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So far in this series, we've written about the visible and tangible properties of paint — why paint has a certain shade, why it covers or doesn't cover, why it flows more easily or more slowly. This article is about what lies beneath it all: binders and solvents, the components that determine what remains on the surface when everything else evaporates.

1. What is a binder and what is its role

A binder is a component of paint that holds pigment and filler particles together and ensures their adhesion to the substrate. When the paint dries or sets, the binder forms a continuous film that encapsulates the pigment and protects it from mechanical and chemical influences. The binder determines most of the application properties of the finished paint: film flexibility, hardness, gloss, chemical resistance, adhesion and durability. Two coatings with the same pigment but different binders can behave completely differently — one may be flexible and waterproof, the other brittle and sensitive to moisture.

2. How a binder works — film formation

Depending on the type of binder, the film is formed in one of two basic ways:
• Physical drying
• Chemical crosslinking (polymerization) Acrylics technically undergo physical drying — water evaporates, and acrylic polymer particles combine into a film through a process called coalescence.

Once formed, the acrylic film is chemically stable and practically insoluble in water, but soluble in some organic solvents.

3. Types of binders

Acrylic binders

Acrylic binders are synthetic polymers dispersed in water (latex). They are the most widely used in modern use — they are used in acrylic paints for miniatures, wall paints, primers and varnishes. Characteristics:
• Water is the solvent — easy cleanup, low toxicity
• Fast drying — an advantage for working in layers, a disadvantage for wet-on-wet techniques
• Flexible and waterproof film after drying
• The color changes slightly when drying — acrylics are known to darken as they dry (due to a change in the refractive index of the binder)

Oil binders

Oil paints use drying oils as a binder — most often linseed oil, but also walnut, poppy and safflower. Each oil has slightly different properties: linseed oil dries the fastest and gives a strong film, but it can turn yellow over time; poppy and safflower oils are less yellow but dry more slowly. Features:
• Drying by oxidative polymerization — slow (hours to days), but the film is extremely durable
• Long open time — ideal for wet-on-wet techniques and mixing on the palette
• Rich, deep gloss that acrylics have difficulty reproducing
• Solvents are organic — mineral organic solvents (white spirit, xylene, etc.)
• Some pigments in oil-based paints can yellow over time due to the binder

Alkyd binders

Alkyds are synthetic polymers based on oils and acids — a kind of modernization of oil binders. They dry by oxidative polymerization like oils, but faster and with more predictable properties. They are common in industrial coatings, primers, and decorative paints for metal and wood. Characteristics:
• Faster drying than pure oils, but slower than acrylics
• Hard and resistant film — good chemical and mechanical resistance
• Solvents are organic — mineral organic solvents (white spirit, xylene, etc.)
• May turn yellow over time, similar to oil binders

Gum arabic and other water-soluble binders

Gum arabic is a natural resin used as a binder in watercolors and some inks. It is soluble in water and dries by physical drying — the film remains soluble in water even after drying, which is a characteristic of watercolors (possibility of reactivation). In the same category of water-soluble binders are casein (from milk), egg tempera (egg yolk as an emulsion of oil and water) and gouache binders. Each of them gives a different film with different properties.

4. What are solvents and what is their role

A solvent is a substance that dissolves or disperses a binder, thereby controlling the viscosity of the paint, enabling its application, and determining the drying speed. After application, the solvent evaporates — and this evaporation process is actually the first stage of “drying” the paint. It is important to distinguish a solvent from a thinner. A true solvent dissolves the binder — it molecularly breaks it down and homogeneously incorporates it into the solution. A thinner only lowers the viscosity, but does not necessarily dissolve the binder. In practice, these terms are often used interchangeably, but the difference becomes important when talking about compatibility.

5. Types of Solvents

Water

Water is a solvent for acrylic binders, gum arabic, and other water-soluble binders. The advantages are low toxicity, no flammability, and easy cleanup. Disadvantages include relatively slow evaporation compared to organic solvents and sensitivity to temperature and humidity — drying is significantly slowed down at low temperatures or high humidity.

Turpentine and mineral organic solvents

Turpentine is a natural distillate of coniferous resin and a traditional solvent for oil paints and alkyds. It has a characteristic odor and good solvating effect. Due to its strong odor and potential toxicity with prolonged exposure, in modern use it is increasingly being replaced by mineral organic solvents (white spirit, xylene, etc.) or odorless isoparaffin-based thinners. Mineral organic solvents are a fraction of petroleum with a slightly milder odor than turpentine, but similar properties. Odorless thinners are more refined and have minimal odor — more suitable for indoor use.

Isopropanol and ethanol

Alcohols are used as solvents for some types of inks, varnishes, and shellacs. Isopropanol (IPA) is widely available and is used for cleaning brushes, thinning alcohol-based inks, and various technical applications. It is not compatible with acrylic binders in large quantities — it can destabilize the emulsion.

6. Binder-solvent interaction

Each binder has its own compatible solvents — those that dissolve or disperse it properly. Using an incompatible solvent can lead to: • coagulation — the binder precipitates out of solution in the form of lumps • emulsion destabilization — the paint separates into phases • poor film formation — the paint does not bond properly, remains sticky, or peels • dissolution of previously applied layers — especially a problem with varnishes and topcoats A practical example: acrylic paints are water-based. Adding mineral spirits or turpentine to acrylic paint will not thin it — it will cause the binder to coagulate and destroy the paint. Conversely, adding water to oil paint does not thin it properly — water and oil do not mix.

7. Media, additives and retarders

Media are formulated additives that modify the properties of the paint without disturbing the ratio of the components. For acrylic paints, these can be: drying retarders (retarders) that extend the open time and enable wet-on-wet techniques, liquid media that lower viscosity while maintaining gloss, matte media that reduce gloss, or glaze media that increase transparency. For oil paints, the media can be: varnish (damar, mastic) which accelerates drying and gives shine, siccatives (driers) which chemically accelerate oxidative polymerization, but whose excessive use can cause the film to crack over time. General rule: media are formulated for specific binders and should not be used interchangeably. Acrylic paint medium will not work in oil paint and vice versa.

Conclusion

The binder is what makes the pigment and solvent into paint — it forms a film, holds the pigment to the substrate, and determines the durability of the coating. The solvent controls the viscosity and drying speed, but it must be compatible with the binder. Understanding this trio — pigment, binder, solvent — provides a solid foundation for understanding almost any paint or coating you will work with.

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Dosad smo u ovoj seriji pisali o vidljivim i opipljivim svojstvima boje — o tome zašto boja ima određenu nijansu, zašto pokriva ili ne pokriva, zašto teče lakše ili teže. Ovaj tekst bavi se onim što je ispod svega toga: vezivima i otapalima, komponentama koje određuju što ostaje na podlozi kad sve ostalo ispari.

1. Što je vezivo i koja mu je uloga

Vezivo je komponenta boje koja drži čestice pigmenta i punila zajedno i osigurava njihovo prianjanje na podlogu. Kada boja osuši ili veže, vezivo formira kontinuirani film koji enkapsulira pigment i štiti ga od mehaničkih i kemijskih utjecaja. Vezivo određuje većinu uporabnih svojstava gotove boje: fleksibilnost filma, tvrdoću, sjaj, kemijsku otpornost, adheziju i trajnost. Dva premaza s istim pigmentom ali različitim vezivima mogu se ponašati potpuno drukčije — jedan može biti fleksibilan i vodootporan, drugi krhak i osjetljiv na vlagu.

2. Kako vezivo funkcionira — formiranje filma

Ovisno o vrsti veziva, film se formira na jedan od dva osnovna načina:
• Fizikalno sušenje
• Kemijsko umrežavanje (polimerizacija) Akrili tehnički prolaze kroz fizikalno sušenje — voda isparava, a čestice akrilnog polimera se spajaju u film procesom koji se zove koalescencija.

Jednom formirani akrilni film je kemijski stabilan i praktično neotopiv u vodi, ali topiv u nekim organskim otapalima.

3. Vrste veziva

Akrilna veziva

Akrilna veziva su sintetički polimeri dispergirani u vodi (lateks). Najrasprostranjenija su u suvremenoj upotrebi — koriste se u akrilnim bojama za minijature, zidnim bojama, temeljnim premazima i lakovima. Karakteristike: • Otapalo je voda — lako čišćenje, niska toksičnost • Brzo sušenje — prednost za rad u slojevima, mana za tehnike mokro-na-mokro • Fleksibilan i vodootporan film nakon sušenja • Boja se lagano mijenja pri sušenju — akrili su poznatih po tome da tamne dok se suše (zbog promjene indeksa refrakcije veziva)

Uljana veziva

Uljane boje koriste sušiva ulja kao vezivo — najčešće laneno ulje, ali i orašasto, makovo i saflorovo. Svako ulje ima nešto drugačija svojstva: laneno ulje suši najbrže i daje čvrst film, ali može s vremenom požutjeti; makovo i saflorovo ulje manje žute ali sporije suše. Karakteristike:
• Sušenje oksidativnom polimerizacijom — sporo (sati do dani), ali film je iznimno trajan
• Dugo otvoreno vrijeme — idealno za mokro-na-mokro tehnike i miješanje na paleti
• Bogat, duboki sjaj koji akrili teško reproduciraju • Otapala su organska — mineralna organska otapala (white spirit, ksilen i sl.)
• Neki pigmenti u uljanoj bazi mogu požutjeti s vremenom zbog veziva

Alkidna veziva

Alkidi su sintetički polimeri na bazi ulja i kiselina — svojevrsna modernizacija uljanih veziva. Suše oksidativnom polimerizacijom kao i ulja, ali brže i s predvidljivijim svojstvima. Česti su u industrijskim premazima, temeljnim bojama i dekorativnim bojama za metal i drvo. Karakteristike:
• Brže sušenje od čistih ulja, ali sporije od akrila
• Tvrd i otporan film — dobra kemijska i mehanička otpornost
• Otapala su organska — mineralna organska otapala (white spirit, ksilen i sl.)
• Mogu žutjeti s vremenom, slično uljanim vezivima

Guma arabika i druga vodotopiva veziva

Guma arabika je prirodna smola koja se koristi kao vezivo u akvarelima i nekim tintama. Topiva je u vodi i suši fizikalnim sušenjem — film ostaje topiv u vodi i nakon sušenja, što je karakteristika akvarela (mogućnost reaktiviranja). U istoj kategoriji vodotopivih veziva nalaze se i kazein (iz mlijeka), jajčana tempera (žumanjak jajeta kao emulzija ulja i vode) i gvaš veziva. Svako od njih daje drukčiji film s drukčijim svojstvima.

4. Što su otapala i koja je njihova uloga

Otapalo je tvar koja otapa ili dispergira vezivo i time kontrolira viskoznost boje, omogućuje njezino nanošenje i određuje brzinu sušenja. Nakon nanošenja, otapalo isparava — i taj proces isparavanja je zapravo “sušenje” boje u prvoj fazi. Važno je razlikovati otapalo od razrjeđivača. Pravo otapalo otapa vezivo — molekularno ga razgrađuje i homogeno uključuje u otopinu. Razrjeđivač samo snižava viskoznost, ali ne mora nužno otapati vezivo. U praksi se ovi pojmovi često koriste naizmjenično, ali razlika postaje važna kad se govori o kompatibilnosti.

5. Vrste otapala

Voda

Voda je otapalo za akrilna veziva, gumu arabiku i ostala vodotopiva veziva. Prednosti su niska toksičnost, nema zapaljivosti i lako čišćenje. Mane su relativno sporo isparavanje u usporedbi s organskim otapalima i osjetljivost na temperaturu i vlagu — pri niskim temperaturama ili visokoj vlazi sušenje se znatno usporava.

Terpentin i mineralna organska otapala

Terpentin je prirodni destilat smole četinjača i tradicionalno otapalo za uljane boje i alkide. Ima karakterističan miris i dobar solvatacijski učinak. Zbog jakog mirisa i potencijalne toksičnosti pri dugotrajnoj izložnosti, u modernoj upotrebi ga sve više zamjenjuju mineralna organska otapala (white spirit, ksilen i sl.) ili bezmirisni razrjeđivači na bazi izoparafina. Mineralna organska otapala su frakcija nafte s nešto blažim mirisom od terpentina, ali sličnim svojstvima. Bezorisni razrjeđivači su rafiniraniji i imaju minimalan miris — prikladniji za zatvorene prostore.

Izopropanol i etanol

Alkoholi se koriste kao otapala za neke vrste tinta, lakova i shellaca. Izopropanol (IPA) je široko dostupan i koristi se za čišćenje kistova, razrjeđivanje alkoholnih tinta i raznih tehničkih primjena. Nije kompatibilan s akrilnim vezivima u većim količinama — može destabilizirati emulziju.

6. Interakcija veziva i otapala

Svako vezivo ima svoja kompatibilna otapala — ona koja ga pravilno otapaju ili dispergiraju. Upotreba nekompatibilnog otapala može dovesti do: • koagulacije — vezivo se izlučuje iz otopine u obliku grudica • destabilizacije emulzije — boja se razdvaja na faze • lošeg formiranja filma — boja ne veže pravilno, ostaje ljepljiva ili se lupa • otapanja već nanesenih slojeva — posebno problem kod lakova i finalnih premaza Praktični primjer: akrilne boje su na bazi vode. Dodavanje mineralnog terpentina ili terpentina u akrilnu boju neće je razrijediti — izazvat će koagulaciju veziva i uništiti boju. Obrnuto, dodavanje vode u uljanu boju ne razrjeđuje je pravilno — voda i ulje se ne miješaju.

7. Mediji, aditivi i retarderi

Mediji su formulirani dodaci koji modificiraju svojstva boje bez narušavanja omjera komponenti. Za akrilne boje to mogu biti: usporivači sušenja (retarteri) koji produljuju otvoreno vrijeme i omogućuju mokro-na-mokro tehnike, tekući mediji koji snižavaju viskoznost uz zadržavanje sjaja, mat mediji koji smanjuju sjaj, ili glazurni mediji koji povećavaju transparentnost. Za uljane boje mediji mogu biti: lak (damar, mastic) koji ubrzava sušenje i daje sjaj, sikativi (sušila) koji kemijski ubrzavaju oksidativnu polimerizaciju, ali čija prekomjerna upotreba može izazvati pucanje filma s vremenom. Opće pravilo: mediji su formulirani za konkretna veziva i ne smiju se koristiti naizmjenično. Medij za akrilne boje neće funkcionirati u uljanoj boji i obrnuto.

Zaključak

Vezivo je ono što od pigmenta i otapala pravi boju — ono formira film, drži pigment na podlozi i određuje trajnost premaza. Otapalo kontrolira viskoznost i brzinu sušenja, ali mora biti kompatibilno s vezivom. Razumijevanje ove trojke — pigment, vezivo, otapalo — daje solidan temelj za razumijevanje gotovo svake boje ili premaza s kojim ćete raditi.

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Dunja Singer, 13th July 2026

Pigmentation principles: Density, viscosity and opacity - three different things we call the same name

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In discussions about paints, coatings and various masses, one often hears: this paint is thick; — and this can mean three completely different properties. This text explains what each of them actually means, why it is important to distinguish between them and how this difference affects practical decisions such as thinning the paint.

1. Density — how much material is in a given volume

Density is a physical property that describes the mass of a material per unit volume. It is measured in grams per milliliter (g/ml) or kilograms per liter (kg/l). Water has a density of about 1 g/ml; metals are much denser, oils somewhat less. Density is a property of a material — it does not change when you stir it, heat it, or cool it. A paint with a density of 1.4 g/ml remains that density whether you stir it with a spoon or let it sit. In the context of paints and coatings, density depends on the composition of the formulation — how much pigment, filler, binder, and solvent is in it. A high density by itself does not tell you anything about how the paint will behave when applied. A good example of the difference between density and viscosity: a salt solution is denser than pure water and sinks, but flows almost as easily. Silicone oil or motor oil, on the other hand, floats on water because it is less dense — yet it is extremely viscous and difficult to flow. Density and viscosity are therefore not the same, nor do they necessarily go together.

2. Viscosity — resistance to flow

Viscosity is a rheological property that describes the resistance of a fluid to flow. Honey has a high viscosity — it flows slowly and resists mixing. Water has a low viscosity — it flows easily and without resistance. Viscosity is measured in mPa·s (millipascal-seconds) or cP (centipoise). A key difference from density: viscosity can change without changing the composition of the material. The same material can have different viscosities depending on:
• temperature — when heated, viscosity decreases (honey flows much more easily at 40°C than at room temperature)
• shear force — many paints and coatings are so-called pseudoplastic fluids: their viscosity drops when mixed, and returns when at rest (thixotropy)
• addition of thinner — but this is already an intervention in the formulation, not just a physical correction When someone says that the paint is “too thick to apply,” they are almost always talking about viscosity — about it being difficult to spread or not getting into details. It is not the same as density.

3. Opacity — an optical property, not a physical one

Opacity and pigmentation have no direct relationship to viscosity or density. Paint can be thin (low viscosity) and have excellent coverage/pigmentation, or thick (high viscosity) and be completely transparent — viscosity and coverage/pigmentation are independent quantities. A good example is ink: they are low viscosity, but can be extremely pigmented and opaque. A wash is a low viscosity, low pigmentation paint — intentionally formulated that way. Craft paints that are sold cheaply in department stores are often the opposite: high viscosity, but low pigmentation. As described in more detail in the previous article in this series, coverage and pigmentation depend on the refractive index and pigment dispersion — not on how “thick” the paint is.

4. Why these three terms are confused — and why it’s a problem

In everyday speech, all three are summed up in one word: “thick.” We say that a paint is thick when we mean that it is viscous, opaque, and pigment-rich — all at once. In practice, this works until problems arise. Typical confusion: the paint is viscous and covers well, so the user perceives it as “thick.” To achieve the desired viscosity for application, it needs to be thinned heavily with water — which lowers the pigment concentration, coverage, and other properties of the formulation. A lower viscosity paint in the same situation requires only minimal adjustment — sometimes literally a drop of water — to make it comfortable to apply, with negligible impact on properties.

5. How to properly change viscosity — water vs. media from the manufacturer

When the goal is to lower the viscosity of the paint — to make it more fluid for easier application — there are two approaches: adding water and adding a medium (thinner) that the manufacturer recommends with the paint. Water lowers the viscosity, but at the same time changes the ratio of all components in the formulation:
• dilutes the binder — the cohesion of the paint film after drying decreases
• disturbs the pigment/binder ratio — which can affect adhesion, gloss and durability
• in larger amounts, it can destabilize the formulation — especially emulsion systems The medium from the manufacturer is formulated to lower viscosity while preserving the ratio of binders and additives in the formulation.

Unlike water, it does not disrupt the stability of the paint film — adhesion, gloss and durability remain within the designed parameters. Coverage and pigmentation fall with the medium as well as with water, but predictably and controlled. The medium sometimes does not lower the viscosity as much as the user would like. If the goal is to greatly reduce coverage and pigmentation, it is recommended to use the manufacturer's medium, and only if additional viscosity correction is needed, add a little water. Paint manufacturers calculate that the user will dilute the paint to some extent with water — in practice, a water content of up to about 10% is most often acceptable. Above this limit, negative effects on film quality begin to be visible.

Conclusion

Density, viscosity, and opacity are three independent properties that describe different aspects of a material. Density tells you how much material there is in a volume; viscosity tells you how well that material flows; opacity tells you how much light it transmits or blocks. Mixing these terms in practice leads to wrong conclusions — and wrong actions. Understanding the difference between them helps make better decisions: about how to dilute paint, why a certain formulation covers well or poorly, and what we actually change when we reach for a thinner.

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U razgovorima o bojama, premazima i raznim masama često se čuje: ova boja je gusta; — a pritom se može misliti na tri potpuno različita svojstva. Ovaj tekst objašnjava što svako od njih zapravo znači, zašto ih je važno razlikovati i kako ta razlika utječe na praktične odluke poput razrjeđivanja boje.

1. Gustoća — koliko materijala ima u određenom volumenu

Gustoća je fizikalno svojstvo koje opisuje masu nekog materijala po jedinici volumena. Mjeri se u gramima po mililitru (g/ml) ili kilogramima po litri (kg/l). Voda ima gustoću oko 1 g/ml; metali su puno gušći, ulja nešto manje. Gustoća je svojstvo materijala — ne mijenja se time što ga miješate, zagrijavate ili hladite. Boja s gustoćom 1,4 g/ml ostaje te gustoće bez obzira miješate li ju žlicom ili je pustite da stoji. U kontekstu boja i premaza, gustoća ovisi o sastavu formulacije — o tome koliko je pigmenta, punila, veziva i otapala u njoj. Visoka gustoća sama po sebi ne govori ništa o tome kako će se boja ponašati pri nanošenju. Dobar primjer razlike između gustoće i viskoznosti: otopina soli gušća je od čiste vode i tone, ali teče gotovo jednako lako. Silikonsko ulje ili motorno ulje, s druge strane, plivaju na vodi jer su manje gusti — a opet su iznimno viskozni i teško teku. Gustoća i viskoznost dakle nisu isto, niti nužno idu zajedno.

2. Viskoznost — otpor tečenju

Viskoznost je reološko svojstvo koje opisuje otpor fluida prema tečenju. Med ima visoku viskoznost — teče sporo i pruža otpor miješanju. Voda ima nisku viskoznost — teče lako i bez otpora. Viskoznost se mjeri u mPa·s (milipaskal-sekunda) ili cP (centipoise). Ključna razlika od gustoće: viskoznost se može mijenjati bez promjene sastava materijala. Isti materijal može imati različitu viskoznost ovisno o:
• temperaturi — zagrijavanjem viskoznost pada (med na 40°C teče puno lakše nego na sobnoj temperaturi)
• smičnoj sili — mnoge boje i premazi su tzv. pseudoplastični fluidi: pri miješanju im viskoznost pada, a u mirovanju se vraća (tixotropija)
• dodatku razrjeđivača — ali to je već zahvat u formulaciju, a ne samo fizikalna korekcija Kada netko kaže da je boja „pregusta za nanošenje”, gotovo uvijek govori o viskoznosti — o tome da se teško razmazuje ili ne ulazi u detalje. To nije isto što i gustoća.

3. Pokrivnost — optičko svojstvo, ne fizikalno

Pokrivnost i pigmentacija nemaju nikakve izravne veze s viskoznosti ni gustoćom. Boja može biti rijetka (niska viskoznost) i izvrsno pokrivna/pigmentirana, ili gusta (visoka viskoznost) i potpuno prozirna — viskoznost i pokrivnost/pigmentacija su neovisne veličine. Dobar primjer su tinte: niske su viskoznosti, ali mogu biti iznimno bogato pigmentirane i pokrivne. Wash je pak boja niske viskoznosti i niske pigmentacije — namjerno formulirana tako. Craft boje koje se jeftino prodaju u dućanima robe široke potrošnje često su upravo suprotno: visoke viskoznosti, ali niske pigmentacije. Kao što je detaljnije opisano u prethodnom tekstu ove serije, pokrivnost i pigmentacija ovise o indeksu refrakcije i disperziji pigmenta — a ne o tome koliko je boja „gusta”.

4. Zašto se ova tri pojma brkaju — i zašto je to problem

U svakodnevnom govoru se sve troje sažima u jednu riječ: "gusto". Kažemo da je boja gusta misleći da je viskozna, pokrivna i bogata pigmentom — sve odjednom. U praksi to funkcionira dok se ne pojave problemi. Tipična zbrka: boja je viskozna i dobro pokriva, pa ju korisnik doživljava kao „gustu”. Da bi postigao željenu viskoznost za nanošenje, treba ju jako razrijediti vodom — a time pada koncentracija pigmenta, pokrivnost i ostala svojstva formulacije. Boja niže viskoznosti u istoj situaciji zahtijeva tek minimalnu korekciju — ponekad doslovno kap vode — da postane ugodna za nanošenje, uz zanemariv utjecaj na svojstva.

5. Kako pravilno mijenjati viskoznost — voda vs. medij od proizvođača

Kada je cilj sniziti viskoznost boje — učiniti je tečnijom za lakše nanošenje — postoje dva pristupa: dodavanje vode i dodavanje medija (razrjeđivača) koji proizvođač preporučuje uz tu boju. Voda snižava viskoznost, ali istovremeno mijenja omjer svih komponenti u formulaciji:
• razrjeđuje vezivo — smanjuje se kohezija filma boje nakon sušenja
• narušava omjer pigment/vezivo — što može utjecati na adheziju, sjaj i trajnost
• pri većim količinama može destabilizirati formulaciju — posebno emulzijske sustave Medij od proizvođača je formuliran tako da snizi viskoznost uz očuvanje omjera veziva i aditiva u formulaciji.

Za razliku od vode, ne narušava stabilnost filma boje — adhezija, sjaj i trajnost ostaju unutar projektiranih parametara.Pokrivnost i pigmentacija padaju i s medijem, kao i s vodom, ali predvidivo i kontrolirano. Medij ponekad ne snizi viskoznost koliko korisnik želi. Ako je cilj jako smanjiti pokrivnost i pigmentaciju, preporučuje se koristiti medij od proizvođača, a tek ako je potrebna dodatna korekcija viskoznosti, dodati malo vode. Proizvođači boja računaju da će korisnik boju do neke mjere razrijediti vodom — u praksi je najčešće prihvatljiv udio vode do oko 10%. Iznad te granice počinju biti vidljivi negativni učinci na kvalitetu filma.

Zaključak

Gustoća, viskoznost i pokrivnost su tri neovisna svojstva koja opisuju različite aspekte materijala. Gustoća govori koliko materijala ima u volumenu; viskoznost govori kako taj materijal teče; pokrivnost govori koliko svjetlosti propušta ili blokira. Miješanje ovih pojmova u praksi dovodi do pogrešnih zaključaka — i pogrešnih postupaka. Razumijevanje razlike između njih pomaže donijeti bolje odluke: o tome kako razrijediti boju, zašto neka formulacija dobro ili loše pokriva, i što zapravo mijenjamo kada posežemo za razrjeđivačem.

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Dunja Singer, 13th July 2026

Pigmentation principles: Pigments and paints with effects – when a color is not only a color

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So far in this series, we've talked about pigments that provide color by absorbing and reflecting light. There is, however, a whole group of pigments that don't work on this principle — or complement it in subtle ways. These pigments are collectively called effect pigments, and they are responsible for metallic sheens, pearlescent effects, color changes with viewing angle, and many other visual effects that classic pigments can't reproduce.

1. What are effect pigments and how do they differ from classic ones?

Classical pigments are solid particles that absorb certain wavelengths of visible light and reflect others. The color we see is relatively independent of the angle from which we view it and the intensity of the light source — red remains red whether we view it straight on or at an angle. Effect pigments impart color or visual effect by mechanisms that are dependent on geometry — the angle of incidence of light and the angle of view. As a result, their appearance changes with changes in the angle, intensity, or direction of light. It is this dynamism that makes them visually appealing and functionally different from classical pigments. Effect pigments are mostly lamellar — thin, plate-like particles that are oriented parallel to the substrate in the paint film. This orientation is crucial to their visual effect.

2. Metallic pigments

Metallic pigments are tiny metal flakes — most often made of aluminum, copper, or bronze — that reflect light like small mirrors. Thanks to their lamellar shape and metallic surface, they achieve high reflectivity and a characteristic metallic sheen that cannot be achieved with classic pigments. Aluminum flakes give a silver metallic effect. They can be uncolored (the natural silver color of aluminum) or colored with interference coatings — then they are called colored metallics and change color with the viewing angle. Copper and bronze flakes give a warm golden or reddish-golden glow, depending on the alloy composition. They are often used in decorative paints, tampons, and miniature paints. Characteristics of metallic pigments:
• High reflectance — specular reflection that gives a metallic sheen
• Dependence on particle orientation — poor dispersion or application gives an uneven effect
• Sensitivity to oxidation — copper and bronze can darken over time without a protective coating
• Electrical conductivity — aluminum flakes are conductive, which is relevant in some applications

3. Mica and pearlescent pigments

Mica is a natural mineral that can be cleaved into extremely thin, transparent flakes. The paint industry uses synthetic and natural mica flakes, usually coated with thin layers of metal oxides — most commonly titanium dioxide (TiO₂) or iron oxide. The effect is created by the interference of light: light is reflected on the upper and lower surfaces of a thin oxide layer, and these two reflections mutually enhance or cancel each other depending on the thickness of the layer and the wavelength of the light. By controlling the thickness of the oxide layer, almost any color of the spectrum can be achieved. The thickness of the layer of just a few hundred nanometers determines whether the particle will be gold, blue, green or red. The pearlescent (pearlescent) effect is created when multiple layers of mica of different thicknesses interfere with each other — the result is a deep, multi-layered shine that resembles pearl or shell surfaces. Unlike metallics, mica is not metallic — its particles are transparent and light passes through them. Because of this, mica simultaneously provides a glossy effect and a certain level of transparency, which metallic pigments cannot.

4. Holographic and chrome pigments

Holographic pigments contain micron-sized diffraction gratings — surfaces with an extremely regular microstructure that decompose white light into spectral colors. The result is a characteristic rainbow effect that changes rapidly and dramatically with the viewing angle. Each particle is actually a small prismatic element. Chromic (chameleon) pigments are a more advanced version — multilayer structures that display two or more specific colors depending on the viewing angle, unlike the holographic effect that displays the entire spectrum. A typical example is a pigment that appears gold at a right angle and green at a 45° angle. These pigments are particularly challenging to apply — the irregular orientation of the particles in the paint film destroys the effect, so they require careful application and a compatible binder.

5. Thermochromic and photochromic pigments

Thermochromic pigments change color with temperature. The mechanism can be different: some use liquid crystals that change structure at a certain temperature, others are based on chemical compounds that reversibly change structure (leuco dyes). Most commercial thermochromic pigments change color at a certain “transition” temperature — below it they have one color, above it another (usually becoming colorless or pale). Photochromic pigments change color upon exposure to UV radiation. Indoors (without UV) they are colorless or pale; in sunlight they become colored. The mechanism is also reversible — the color is restored when the UV source is removed. They are used in sun-darkening glasses, safety inks, and decorative applications. Both types of pigments have limited durability — the color change cycles gradually degrade the active component. They are not suitable for permanent applications exposed to strong UV radiation or high temperatures.

6. Fluorescent pigments

Fluorescent pigments absorb light — including UV radiation invisible to the eye — and re-emit it as visible light of a longer wavelength. This process, which we described in the diagram of the interaction of light and matter, is called fluorescence. The result is a characteristic “glowing” color that appears brighter than a normally colored surface — because the pigment not only reflects visible light but also adds emitted light from the UV part of the spectrum. This effect is called daylight fluorescence because it is also visible in ordinary daylight, which contains a UV component. Fluorescent pigments are organic compounds — as a rule, they have poor lightfastness. The UV radiation that activates them also degrades them, so fluorescent colors lose their intensity relatively quickly when exposed to sunlight.

7. Phosphorescent pigments

Phosphorescence is similar to fluorescence in that the pigment absorbs energy and emits it as visible light — but unlike fluorescence, the emission persists after the light source is removed. Phosphorescent materials "store" energy in excited electronic states that are slowly discharged, emitting light for minutes or hours. Modern phosphorescent pigments are based mainly on strontium aluminate (SrAl₂O₄) activated with europium and dysprosium. These pigments are significantly more durable and brighter than the older zinc sulfide pigments that have been used for decades, and do not contain radioactive components like earlier "glow-in-the-dark" materials. Phosphorescent pigments are inorganic, which means they have good light fastness and chemical stability. Their color is typically white or slightly yellowish in daylight, and green or blue-green in the dark.

8. Practical application and disadvantages of effect pigments

Effect pigments require more care when applying than classic pigments. A few key points:
• Particle orientation is crucial.
• The substrate affects the effect.
• The binder must be compatible.
• Coverage is limited.
• Dispersion requires attention. As described in the first article in this series, poor dispersion leads to an uneven effect. With metallic and mica pigments, poor dispersion is visible as shiny dots instead of a uniform shine.

Conclusion

Effect pigments extend the possibilities of color far beyond what classical absorption and reflection can achieve. From the metallic luster of aluminum flakes to the pearlescent reflection of interference mica, from the dramatic color change of holographic pigments to the quiet luminescence of phosphorescents — each of these pigments is based on a different physical principle. Understanding these principles helps in selecting the right pigment for the desired effect and in avoiding common application mistakes.

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Dosad smo u ovoj seriji govorili o pigmentima koji daju boju apsorpcijom i refleksijom svjetlosti. Postoji, međutim, cijela skupina pigmenata koji ne funkcioniraju na tom principu — ili ga nadopunjuju na neuočljive načine. Ove pigmente zajednički nazivamo efektnim pigmentima, i oni su odgovorni za metalne sjajeve, biserni odsjaj, promjenu boje s kutom gledanja i mnoge druge vizualne efekte koje klasični pigmenti ne mogu reproducirati.

1. Što su efektni pigmenti i po čemu se razlikuju od klasičnih

Klasični pigmenti su čvrste čestice koje apsorbiraju određene valne duljine vidljive svjetlosti i reflektiraju ostale. Boja koju vidimo relativno je neovisna o kutu iz kojeg gledamo i o jakosti izvora svjetlosti — crvena boja ostaje crvena bez obzira gledamo li je ravno ili pod kutom. Efektni pigmenti daju boju ili vizualni efekt mehanizmima koji su ovisni o geometriji — o kutu upada svjetlosti i kutu gledanja. Zbog toga se njihov izgled mijenja s promjenom kuta, jakosti ili smjera svjetlosti. Upravo ta dinamičnost čini ih vizualno privlačnima i funkcionalno drukčijima od klasičnih pigmenata. Efektni pigmenti uglavnom su pločasti (lamelarni) oblika — tanke, pločaste čestice koje se u filmu boje oričentiraju paralelno s podlogom. Ta orijentacija ključna je za njihov vizualni učinak.

2. Metalik pigmenti

Metalik pigmenti su sitne metalne ljušице — najčešće od aluminija, bakra ili bronce — koje reflektiraju svjetlost poput malih ogledala. Zahvaljujući lamelarnom obliku i metalnoj površini, postižu visoku refleksiju i karakterističnu metalnu blistavost koja se ne može postići klasičnim pigmentima. Aluminijske ljušice daju srebrni metalik efekt. Mogu biti neobojen (prirodna srebrna boja aluminija) ili obojene interferentnim premazima — tada se nazivaju obojeni metalici i mijenjaju boju s kutom gledanja. Bakarne i brončane ljušice daju topli zlatni ili crvenkasto-zlatni odsjaj, ovisno o sastavu legure. Često se koriste u dekorativnim bojama, tamponima i bojama za minijature. Karakteristike metalik pigmenata:
• Visoka refleksija — specijarna (zrcalna) refleksija koja daje metalnu blistavost
• Ovisnost o orijentaciji čestica — loša disperzija ili nanošenje daje neravnomjeran efekt
• Osjetljivost na oksidaciju — bakar i bronca mogu potamniti s vremenom bez zaštitnog premaza
• Električna vodljivost — aluminijske ljušice su vodljive, što je relevantno u nekim primjenama

3. Mica i perlescentni pigmenti

Mica je prirodni mineral koji se može cijepati u iznimno tanke, providne listiće. U industriji boja koriste se sintetski i prirodni listici mice, obično prevučeni tankim slojevima metalnih oksida — najčešće titan-dioksida (TiO₂) ili oksida željeza. Efekt nastaje interferencijom svjetlosti: svjetlost se reflektira na gornjoj i donjoj površini tankog oksidnog sloja, a te se dvije refleksije međusobno pojačavaju ili poništavaju ovisno o debljini sloja i valnoj duljini svjetlosti. Kontrolom debljine oksidnog sloja može se postići gotovo svaka boja spektra. Debljina sloja od samo nekoliko stotina nanometara određuje hoće li čestica biti zlatna, plava, zelena ili crvena. Perlescentni (biserasti) efekt nastaje kada više slojeva mice različitih debljina međusobno interferiraju — rezultat je duboki, višeslojni sjaj koji podsjeća na biserne ili školjkaste površine. Za razliku od metalika, mica nije metalna — njezine čestice su prozirne i svjetlost prolazi kroz njih. Zbog toga mica istovremeno daje i efekt sjaja i određenu razinu prozirnosti, što metalik pigmenti ne mogu.

4. Holografski i kromski pigmenti

Holografski pigmenti sadrže mikronske difrakcijske rešetke — površine s izuzetno pravilnom mikrostrukturom koja razlaže bijelu svjetlost na spektralne boje. Rezultat je karakteristični dugini efekt koji se brzo i dramatično mijenja s kutom gledanja. Svaka čestica zapravo je mali prizmatski element. Kromski (chameleon) pigmenti su naprednija inačica — višeslojne strukture koje prikazuju dvije ili više određenih boja ovisno o kutu gledanja, za razliku od holografskog efekta koji prikazuje cijeli spektar. Tipičan primjer je pigment koji izgleda zlatno pod pravim kutom i zeleno pod kutom od 45°. Ovi pigmenti posebno su zahtjevni za primjenu — neredovita orijentacija čestica u filmu boje uništava efekt, pa zahtijevaju pažljivo nanošenje i kompatibilno vezivo.

5. Termokromni i fotokromni pigmenti

Termokromni pigmenti mijenjaju boju s promjenom temperature. Mehanizam može biti različit: neki koriste tekuće kristale koji mijenjaju strukturu pri određenoj temperaturi, drugi se temelje na kemijskim spojevima koji reverzibilno mijenjaju strukturu (leukobojila). Većina komercijalnih termokromnih pigmenata mijenja boju pri određenoj „prijelaznoj“ temperaturi — ispod nje imaju jednu boju, iznad nje drugu (obično postaju bezbojna ili blijeda). Fotokromni pigmenti mijenjaju boju izlaganjem UV zračenju. U zatvorenom prostoru (bez UV) su bezbojna ili blijeda; na suncu postaju obojeni. Mehanizam je takoer reverzibilan — boja se vraća uklanjanjem UV izvora. Koriste se u naočalama koje se tamne na suncu, sigurnosnim tintama i dekorativnim primjenama. Oba tipa pigmenata imaju ograničenu trajnost — ciklusi promjene boje postupno degradiraju aktivnu komponentu. Nisu pogodni za trajne primjene izložene jakom UV zračenju ili visokim temperaturama.

6. Fluorescentni pigmenti

Fluorescentni pigmenti apsorbiraju svjetlost — uključujići UV zračenje nevidljivo oku — i ponovno je emitiraju kao vidljivo svjetlo više valne duljine. Ovaj proces, koji smo opisali u dijagramu interakcije svjetlosti i tvari, naziva se fluorescencija. Rezultat je karakteristična „sijajuća“ boja koja izgleda svjetlija od obično obojene površine — jer pigment ne samo reflektira vidljivu svjetlost nego i dodaje emitiranu svjetlost iz UV dijela spektra. Taj efekt se naziva dnevna fluorescencija (daylight fluorescence) jer se vidi i na običnom dnevnom svjetlu koje sadrži UV komponentu. Fluorescentni pigmenti su organski spojevi — u pravilu imaju lošu svjetlostalnost. UV zračenje koje ih aktivira istovremeno ih i degradira, pa fluorescentne boje relativno brzo gube intenzitet izložene suncu.

7. Fosforescenti pigmenti

Fosforescencija je slična fluorescenciji u tome što pigment apsorbira energiju i emitira je kao vidljivo svjetlo — ali za razliku od fluorescencije, emisija traje i nakon uklanjanja izvora svjetlosti. Fosforescenti materijali „pohrane“ energiju u pobuđenim elektroničnim stanjima koja se sporo prazne, emitirajći svjetlo minutama ili satima. Suvremeni fosforescenti pigmenti temelje se uglavnom na stroncijevom aluminatu (SrAl₂O₄) aktiviranom europijem i disprozijumom. Ovi pigmenti znatno su trajniji i svjetliji od starijih cinkovih sulfidnih pigmenata koji su se koristili desetljećima, i ne sadrže radioaktivne komponente kao raniji „svijetleci u mraku“ materijali. Fosforescenti pigmenti su anorganski, što znači da imaju dobru svjetlostalnost i kemijsku stabilnost. Boja im je u pravilu bijela ili blago žutača pod dnevnim svjetlom, a zelena ili plavo-zelena u mraku.

8. Praktična primjena i mane efektnih pigmenata

Efektni pigmenti zahtijevaju više pažnje pri primjeni nego klasični pigmenti. Nekoliko ključnih napomena:
• Orijentacija čestica je ključna.
• Podloga utječe na efekt.
• Vezivo mora biti kompatibilno.
• Pokrivnost je ograničena.
• Disperzija zahtijeva pažnju. Kao što je opisano u prvom tekstu ove serije, loša disperzija dovodi do neravnomjernog efekta. Kod metalik i mica pigmenata loša disperzija vidljiva je kao sjajne točkice umjesto ravnomjernog sjaja.

Zaključak

Efektni pigmenti proširuju mogućnosti boje daleko izvan onoga što klasična apsorpcija i refleksija mogu postići. Od metalnog sjaja aluminijskih ljušica do bisernog odsjaja interference mice, od dramatične promjene boje holografskih pigmenata do tihe luminiscencije fosforescenata — svaki od ovih pigmenata temelji se na drukčijem fizikalnom principu. Razumijevanje tih principa pomaže pri odabiru pravog pigmenta za željeni efekt i pri izbjegavanju uobičajenih grešaka pri primjeni.

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Dunja Singer, 13th July 2026

We attended: Isle of Wonders 2026

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	On June 27-29 we attended the Isle of Wonders convention held on the island of Cres. 

	

	

	

	I took part in their miniature painting competition which boasted over 50 works. I'm proud to say I managed to snag a Highly Commended medal!

	

	

	

	

	

	
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	27.-29. lipnja nastupili smo na konvenciji Isle of Wonders koja se održala na otoku Cresu. 

	

	

	

	Natjecala sam se na njihovom natjecanju u bojanju minijatura. Ukupno je bilo preko 50 radova, a ja sam uspjela osvojiti "highly commended" medalju!

	

	

	

	

	

	
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